Basics 6 min read
The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle
The ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and release of eggs, while the menstrual cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of…
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Basics 3 min read
Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
The human male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by the interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary…
Basics 4 min read
Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)
Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of meiosis. During meiosis, two cell divisions separate…
Basics 5 min read
Female Reproductive Anatomy
A number of reproductive structures are exterior to the female’s body. These include the breasts and the vulva, which consists…
Basics 6 min read
Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
As animals became more complex, specific organs and organ systems developed to support specific functions for the organism. The reproductive…
Basics 5 min read
Animal Reproduction and Development
Figure 24.1. Female seahorses produce eggs for reproduction that are then fertilized by the male. Unlike almost all other animals,…
Basics 6 min read
Disruptions in the Immune System
A functioning immune system is essential for survival, but even the sophisticated cellular and molecular defenses of the mammalian immune…
Basics 8 min read
Antibodies
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a protein that is produced by plasma cells after stimulation by an…
Basics 3 min read
Primary Centers of the Immune System
Although the immune system is characterized by circulating cells throughout the body, the regulation, maturation, and intercommunication of immune factors…
Basics 8 min read
Mucosal Surfaces and Immune Tolerance
The innate and adaptive immune responses discussed thus far comprise the systemic immune system (affecting the whole body), which is…
Basics 14 min read
Adaptive Immune Response
The adaptive, or acquired, immune response takes days or even weeks to become established—much longer than the innate response; however,…
Basics 6 min read
Phagocytosis and Inflammation
The first cytokines to be produced are pro-inflammatory; that is, they encourage inflammation, the localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain that…