Basics 4 min read
Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
While the kidneys operate to maintain osmotic balance and blood pressure in the body, they also act in concert with…
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Basics 4 min read
Nitrogenous Wastes
Of the four major macromolecules in biological systems, both proteins and nucleic acids contain nitrogen. During the catabolism, or breakdown,…
Basics 5 min read
Excretion Systems
Microorganisms and invertebrate animals use more primitive and simple mechanisms to get rid of their metabolic wastes than the mammalian…
Basics 13 min read
The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
Although the kidneys are the major osmoregulatory organ, the skin and lungs also play a role in the process. Water…
Basics 9 min read
Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
Figure 22.1. Just as humans recycle what we can and dump the remains into landfills, our bodies use and recycle…
Basics 8 min read
Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by blood on the walls of a blood vessel that helps to push blood…
Basics 4 min read
Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
The blood from the heart is carried through the body by a complex network of blood vessels (Figure 21.15). Arteries take blood…
Basics 8 min read
Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
The heart is a complex muscle that pumps blood through the three divisions of the circulatory system: the coronary (vessels…
Basics 12 min read
Components of the Blood
Hemoglobin is responsible for distributing oxygen, and to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide, throughout the circulatory systems of humans, vertebrates,…
Basics 9 min read
The Circulatory System
Figure 21.1. Just as highway systems transport people and goods through a complex network, the circulatory system transports nutrients, gases,…
Basics 8 min read
Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids
Once the oxygen diffuses across the alveoli, it enters the bloodstream and is transported to the tissues where it is…
Basics 8 min read
The Work of Breathing
The number of breaths per minute is the respiratory rate. On average, under non-exertion conditions, the human respiratory rate is 12–15…