Basics 4 min read
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Unlike B cells, T lymphocytes are unable to recognize pathogens without assistance. Instead, dendritic cells and macrophages first engulf and…
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Basics 7 min read
Adaptive Immunity
The adaptive, or acquired, immune response takes days or even weeks to become established—much longer than the innate response; however,…
Basics 8 min read
Innate Immunity
The vertebrate, including human, immune system is a complex multilayered system for defending against external and internal threats to the…
Basics 7 min read
Viruses and Disease
Viruses cause a variety of diseases in animals, including humans, ranging from the common cold to potentially fatal illnesses like…
Basics 4 min read
Steps of Virus Infections
A virus must “take over” a cell to replicate. The viral replication cycle can produce dramatic biochemical and structural changes…
Basics 9 min read
Introduction to the Immune System and Disease
Figure 12.1 (a) This smallpox (variola) vaccine is derived from calves exposed to cowpox virus. Vaccines provoke a reaction in…
Basics 11 min read
The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord and is covered with three layers…
Basics 10 min read
Nervous System
As you read this, your nervous system is performing several functions simultaneously. The visual system is processing what is seen…
Basics 10 min read
Musculoskeletal System
The muscular and skeletal systems provide support to the body and allow for movement. The bones of the skeleton protect…
Basics 12 min read
Endocrine System
The endocrine system produces hormones that function to control and regulate many different body processes. The endocrine system coordinates with…
Basics 7 min read
The Circulatory System
The circulatory system is a network of vessels—the arteries, veins, and capillaries—and a pump, the heart. In all vertebrate organisms…